Pyruvate kinase (PK), as one of the key enzymes for glycolysis, can encode four different
subtypes from two groups of genes, although the M2 subtype PKM2 is expressed mainly …

The outer retina is nourished from the choroid, a capillary bed just inside the sclera. O2,
glucose, and other nutrients diffuse out of the choroid and then filter through a monolayer of …

An important pathophysiological process of acute kidney injury (AKI) is mitochondrial
fragmentation in renal tubular epithelial cells, which leads to cell death. Pyruvate kinase M2 …

Chronic complications of diabetes are due to myriad disorders of numerous metabolic
pathways that are responsible for most of the morbidity and mortality associated with the …

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is the leading cause of blindness in the elderly.
While the histopathology of the different disease stages is well characterized, the cause …

Acquired and inherited retinal disorders are responsible for vision loss in an increasing
proportion of individuals worldwide. Photoreceptor (PR) death is central to the vision loss …

The retina is one of the most metabolically active tissues in the body and utilizes glucose to
produce energy and intermediates required for daily renewal of photoreceptor cell outer …

One hundred years ago, Otto Heinrich Warburg observed that postmitotic retinal cells are the
highest oxygen-consuming cells in the body. He compared these cells to actively growing …

Photoreceptors consume glucose supplied by the choriocapillaris to support
phototransduction and outer segment (OS) renewal. Reduced glucose supply underlies …

Macroautophagy/autophagy is a key process in the maintenance of cellular homeostasis.
The age-dependent decline in retinal autophagy has been associated with photoreceptor …