Astaxanthin (AST) is a potent lipid-soluble keto-carotenoid with auspicious effects on human
health. It protects organisms against a wide range of diseases with excellent safety and …

Injury to or disease of the nervous system can invoke chronic and sometimes intractable
neuropathic pain. Many parallel, interdependent, and time-dependent processes, including …

Complex regional pain syndrome is a chronic pain condition characterized by autonomic
and inflammatory features. It occurs acutely in about 7% of patients who have limb fractures …

Neuropathic pain resulting from damage or dysfunction of the nervous system is a highly
debilitating chronic pain state and is often resistant to currently available treatments. It has …

The prevalence and cost of chronic pain is a major physical and mental health care problem
in the United States today. As a result, there has been a recent explosion of research on …

Glia have emerged as key contributors to pathological and chronic pain mechanisms. On
activation, both astrocytes and microglia respond to and release a number of signalling …

The cytokine cascade in pain and inflammatory processes is a tremendously complex
system, involving glial, immune, and neuronal cell interactions. IL-1β is a pro-inflammatory …

Neuropathic pain refers to pain that originates from pathology of the nervous system.
Diabetes, infection (herpes zoster), nerve compression, nerve trauma," channelopathies," …

Mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) are important for intracellular signal transduction
and play critical roles in regulating neural plasticity and inflammatory responses. The MAPK …

Synaptic plasticity is fundamental to many neurobiological functions, including memory and
pain. Central sensitization refers to the increased synaptic efficacy established in …