Motivational processes are complex and multifaceted, with both directional and activational
aspects. Behavioral activation and exertion of effort are functions that enable organisms to …

Nociceptin and its receptor are widely distributed throughout the brain in regions associated
with reward behavior, yet how and when they act is unknown. Here, we dissected the role of …

Acute stress transiently increases vigilance, enhancing the detection of salient stimuli in
one's environment. This increased perceptual sensitivity is thought to promote the …

Learning associations between cues and rewards require the mesolimbic dopamine system.
The dopamine response to cues signals differences in reward value in well trained animals …

Glutamate signalling through the N‐methyl‐d‐aspartate receptor (NMDAR) activates the
enzyme neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) to produce the signalling molecule nitric …

Background The misuse and abuse of alcohol is a major public health issue. However,
available treatments are limited with variable efficacy. Recently, preclinical studies show that …

Dopamine neurons respond to cues to reflect the value of associated outcomes. These cue-
evoked dopamine responses can encode the relative rate of reward in rats with extensive …

Combined antiretroviral therapy for HIV infection reduces plasma viral load and prolongs
life. However, the brain is a viral reservoir, and pathologies such as cognitive decline and …

Aim: To elucidate the epigenetic consequences of DNA methylation in healthspan
termination (HST), considering the current limited understanding. Materials & methods …

Stress affects dopamine‐dependent behaviors in part through the actions of corticotropin
releasing factor (CRF) in the ventral tegmental area (VTA). For example, acute stress …