The encoded biosynthesis of proteins provides the ultimate paradigm for high-fidelity
synthesis of long polymers of defined sequence and composition, but it is limited to …

Nature uses a limited, conservative set of amino acids to synthesize proteins. The ability to
genetically encode an expanded set of building blocks with new chemical and physical …

Nature uses 64 codons to encode the synthesis of proteins from the genome, and chooses 1
sense codon—out of up to 6 synonyms—to encode each amino acid. Synonymous codon …

Our understanding of the complex molecular processes of living organisms at the molecular
level is growing exponentially. This knowledge, together with a powerful arsenal of tools for …

Over the last decade, the ability to genetically encode unnatural amino acids (UAAs) has
evolved rapidly. The programmed incorporation of UAAs into recombinant proteins relies on …

We describe the construction and characterization of a genomically recoded organism
(GRO). We replaced all known UAG stop codons in Escherichia coli MG1655 with …

Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are increasingly deployed at large scales and in
open environments. Genetic biocontainment strategies are needed to prevent unintended …

The emergence of robust methods to expand the genetic code allows incorporation of non-
canonical amino acids into the polypeptide chain of proteins, thus making it possible to …

Genetic code expansion and reprogramming enable the site-specific incorporation of
diverse designer amino acids into proteins produced in cells and animals. Recent advances …

We present genome engineering technologies that are capable of fundamentally
reengineering genomes from the nucleotide to the megabase scale. We used multiplex …