Abstract Toll-like receptor (TLR) 4 belongs to the TLR family of receptors inducing pro-
inflammatory responses to invading pathogens. TLR4 is activated by lipopolysaccharide …

COVID‐19 leads to severe respiratory problems, but also to long‐COVID syndrome
associated primarily with cognitive dysfunction and fatigue. Long‐COVID syndrome …

The immune system is a very diverse system of the host that evolved during evolution to
cope with various pathogens present in the vicinity of environmental surroundings inhabited …

Since first described by Paul Ehrlich in 1878, mast cells have been mostly viewed as
effectors of allergy. It has been only in the past two decades that mast cells have gained …

Inflammation is a complex and potentially life-threatening condition that involves the
participation of a variety of chemical mediators, signaling pathways, and cell types. The …

Immunological functions of mast cells remain poorly understood. Studies in Kit mutant mice
suggest key roles for mast cells in certain antibody-and T cell-mediated autoimmune …

In addition to the well known role of mast cells in immunity to multi-cellular parasites and in
the pathogenesis of allergy and asthma, the importance of mast cells in the immune defense …

Mast cells (MCs), which are granulated tissue-resident cells of hematopoietic lineage,
constitute a major sensory arm of the innate immune system. In this review we discuss the …

Abstract Ammonia (NH 3), an inhaled harmful gas, is not only an important volatile in
fertilizer production and ranching, but also the main basic component of haze. However, the …

Mast cells (MCs) are strategically located in tissues close to the external environment, being
one of the first immune cells to interact with invading pathogens. They are long living effector …