Toxin-antitoxin (TA) systems are ubiquitous genetic elements in bacteria that consist of a
growth-inhibiting toxin and its cognate antitoxin. These systems are prevalent in bacterial …

Toxin-antitoxin (TA) modules are ubiquitous gene loci among bacteria and are comprised of
a toxin part and its cognate antitoxin part. Under normal physiological conditions, antitoxin …

Retrons are prokaryotic genetic retroelements encoding a reverse transcriptase that
produces multi-copy single-stranded DNA (msDNA). Despite decades of research on the …

INTRODUCTION CRISPR-Cas systems efficiently protect bacteria and archaea from viruses
and other types of foreign DNA, but, characteristically of defense systems, they also impart …

Toxin-antitoxin (TA) systems are ubiquitous genetic elements in bacterial genomes, but their
functions are controversial. Although they are frequently postulated to regulate cell growth …

Toxin-antitoxin (TA) systems are a large group of small genetic modules found in
prokaryotes and their mobile genetic elements. Type II TAs are encoded as bicistronic (two …

Protein-protein interaction specificity is often encoded at the primary sequence level.
However, the contributions of individual residues to specificity are usually poorly understood …

Many bacteria use CRISPR-Cas systems to defend against invasive mobile genetic
elements (MGEs). In response, MGEs have developed strategies to resist CRISPR-Cas …

Toxin-antitoxin (TA) systems are widespread on mobile genetic elements and in bacterial
chromosomes. In type I TA, synthesis of the toxin protein is prevented by the transcription of …

Toxin–antitoxin systems (TAs) are abundant in bacterial chromosomes and can arrest
growth under stress, but usually remain inactive. TAs have been increasingly implicated in …