Retroviruses have evolved effective strategies to evade the host immune response, such as
high variability and latent infection. In addition, primate lentiviruses, such as HIV-1, have …

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection is principally a mucosal disease and the
gastrointestinal (GI) tract is the major site of HIV replication. Loss of CD4+ T cells and …

The mechanism by which CD4 T cells are depleted in HIV-infected hosts remains poorly
understood. In ex vivo cultures of human tonsil tissue, CD4 T cells undergo a pronounced …

In contrast to activated CD4+ T cells, resting human CD4+ T cells circulating in blood are
highly resistant to infection with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV),,,. Whether the inability …

Myeloid cells play numerous roles in HIV-1 pathogenesis serving as a vehicle for viral
spread and as a viral reservoir. Yet, cells of this lineage generally resist HIV-1 infection …

CD4+ T lymphocytes represent the main target cell population of human immunodeficiency
virus (HIV). In an activated state, CD4+ T cells residing in lymphoid organs are a major …

Restriction factors are natural cellular proteins that defend individual cells from viral
infection. These factors include the APOBEC3 family of DNA cytidine deaminases, which …

The APOBEC family of proteins comprises deaminase enzymes that edit DNA and/or RNA
sequences. The APOBEC3 subgroup plays an important role on the innate immune system …

Recent discoveries have revealed previously unappreciated complexity with which
retroviruses interact with their hosts. In particular, we have become aware that many …

Type I interferon (IFN) inhibits virus replication by activating multiple antiviral mechanisms
and pathways. It has long been recognized that alpha interferon (IFN-α) can potently block …