Involuntary movements, or dyskinesia, represent a debilitating complication of levodopa (L-
dopa) therapy for Parkinson's disease (PD). L-dopa-induced dyskinesia (LID) are ultimately …

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder that affects about 1.5% of the
global population over 65 years of age. A hallmark feature of PD is the degeneration of the …

Normal maintenance of human motivation depends on the integrity of subcortical structures
that link the prefrontal cortex with the limbic system. Structural and functional disruption of …

Parkinson disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative movement
disorder. Pharmacological animal models are invaluable tools to study the pathological …

Stroke is the second-most common cause of death worldwide. The pathophysiology of
ischemic stroke (IS) is related to inflammation, atherosclerosis, blood coagulation, and …

Dopamine neurons in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) are implicated in affective functions.
However, it is unclear to what extent dopamine neurons in substantia nigra pars compacta …

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second-leading cause of dementia and is characterized by a
progressive loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra alongside the presence of …

Only a few years after the introduction of levodopa, the first descriptions of motor fluctuations
and dyskinesia related to dopaminergic therapy appeared. In PD, attention turned to their …

Memory and motor deficits are commonly identified in Parkinson's disease (PD). 1-Methyl-4-
phenyl-1, 2, 3, 6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) is transformed to MPP+ via monoamine oxidase …

Brain organoids are three-dimensional (3D) structures derived from human pluripotent stem
cells (hPSCs) that reflect early brain organization. These organoids contain different cell …