Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are metabolic byproducts that are necessary for
physiological function but can be toxic at high levels. Levels of these oxidative stressors …

The mammalian mitochondrial electron transport chain (ETC) includes complexes I‑IV, as
well as the electron transporters ubiquinone and cytochrome c. There are two electron …

Reduced glutathione (GSH) is an essential non-enzymatic antioxidant in mammalian cells.
GSH can act directly as an antioxidant to protect cells against free radicals and pro-oxidants …

Increasing evidence suggests that abnormal cerebral glucose metabolism is largely present
in Alzheimer's disease (AD). The brain utilizes glucose as its main energy source and a …

There is a growing consensus that the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of
melatonin are of great importance in preserving the body functions and homeostasis, with …

Several chemicals, including environmental toxicants and clinically useful drugs, cause
severe cellular damage to different organs of our body through metabolic activation to highly …

Mitochondria are highly plastic and dynamic organelles that have graded responses to the
changing cellular, environmental, and developmental cues. Mitochondria undergo constant …

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are produced by living cells as normal cellular metabolic
byproduct. Under excessive stress conditions, cells will produce numerous ROS, and the …

Apoptosis, also named programmed cell death, is a fundament process required for
morphogenetic homeostasis during early development and in pathophysiological …

Ischemic stroke caused by intracranial vascular occlusion has become increasingly
prevalent with considerable mortality and disability, which gravely burdens the global …