▪ Abstract Bacterial lipopolysaccharides (LPS) typically consist of a hydrophobic domain
known as lipid A (or endotoxin), a nonrepeating “core” oligosaccharide, and a distal …

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are a family of innate immune-recognition receptors that recognize
molecular patterns associated with microbial pathogens, and induce antimicrobial immune …

DNA from bacteria has stimulatory effects on mammalian immune cells,,, which depend on
the presence of unmethylated CpG dinucleotides in the bacterial DNA. In contrast …

The mammalian innate immune system detects the presence of microbial infection through
germ line-encoded pattern recognition receptors (PRRs). Toll-like receptors, retinoic acid …

The innate immune system in drosophila and mammals senses the invasion of
microorganisms using the family of Toll receptors, stimulation of which initiates a range of …

Toll-like receptors have a crucial role in the detection of microbial infection in mammals and
insects. In mammals, these receptors have evolved to recognize conserved products unique …

Immunity in higher organisms can be broadly categorized into adaptive immunity and innate
immunity. Adaptive immunity is mediated by clonally distributed T and B lymphocytes which …

Intracellular double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) is a chief sign of replication for many viruses.
Host mechanisms detect the dsRNA and initiate antiviral responses. In this report, we …

Recognition of pathogens is mediated by a set of germline-encoded receptors that are
referred to as pattern-recognition receptors (PRRs). These receptors recognize conserved …

Gram-negative bacterial infections are accompanied by inflammation and somatic or
visceral pain. These symptoms are generally attributed to sensitization of nociceptors by …