Motivational processes are complex and multifaceted, with both directional and activational
aspects. Behavioral activation and exertion of effort are functions that enable organisms to …

Cognitive effort has been implicated in numerous theories regarding normal and aberrant
behavior and the physiological response to engagement with demanding tasks. Yet, despite …

Nearly 40 years of research on the function of the nucleus accumbens (NAc) has provided a
wealth of information on its contributions to behavior but has also yielded controversies and …

Midbrain dopamine neurons are well known for their strong responses to rewards and their
critical role in positive motivation. It has become increasingly clear, however, that dopamine …

Motivation has been defined as the process that allows organisms to regulate their internal
and external environment, and control the probability, proximity and availability of stimuli. As …

We review the current state of knowledge on the computational and neural mechanisms of
reinforcement-learning with a particular focus on fronto-striatal circuits. We divide the …

Schizophrenia is a complex and multifactorial disorder generally diagnosed in young adults
at the time of the first psychotic episode of delusions and hallucinations. These positive …

Cognitive control is subjectively costly, suggesting that engagement is modulated in
relationship to incentive state. Dopamine appears to play key roles. In particular, dopamine …

It has been known for some time that nucleus accumbens dopamine (DA) is involved in
aspects of motivation, but theoretical approaches to understanding the functions of DA have …

Dopamine released in the nucleus accumbens is thought to contribute to the decision to
exert effort to seek reward. This hypothesis is supported by findings that performance of …