Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are essential for identifying and detecting pathogen-associated
molecular patterns (PAMPs) produced by a variety of pathogens, including viruses and …

The shell of bivalves acts as structural support, defence against predators, stressors, and
maintenance of homeostasis. Haemocytes and mantle epithelial cells participate in shell …

Metazoans have several mechanisms of internal defense for their survival. The internal
defense system evolved alongside the organisms. Annelidae have circulating coelomocytes …

Heterotis niloticus is a basal teleost, belonging to the Osteoglossidae family, which is
widespread in many parts of Africa. The digestive tract of H. niloticus presents similar …

The introduction of pollutants, such as thiacloprid and benzo [a] pyrene (B [a] P), into the
waters of urbanized coastal and estuarine areas through fossil fuel spills, domestic and …

The integument acts as a barrier to protect the body from harmful pathogenic infectious
agents, parasites, UV rays, trauma, and germs. The integument of invertebrates and …

The internal defense system of mollusks represents an efficient protection against
pathogens and parasites, involving several biological immune processes, such as …

The recognition and elimination of invading pathogens are vital for host survival.
Macrophages play a central role in host protection and cells functionally reminiscent of …

Ciliated and non‐ciliated mechanosensory cells in invertebrates have intricate cytoskeletal
structures that, combined with microtubules, act as a mechanical link between external …

The reliance on chemical communication is well established for evading predation in
aquatic systems. Only a few studies have found evidence that chemical cues released from …