Optogenetic actuators enable highly precise spatiotemporal interrogation of biological
processes at levels ranging from the subcellular to cells, circuits and behaving organisms …

Adenosine is a ubiquitous endogenous autacoid whose effects are triggered through the
enrollment of four G protein-coupled receptors: A1, A2A, A2B, and A3. Due to the rapid …

The adenosine modulation system mostly operates through inhibitory A1 (A1R) and
facilitatory A2A receptors (A2AR) in the brain. The activity‐dependent release of adenosine …

Human astrocytes are larger and more complex than those of infraprimate mammals,
suggesting that their role in neural processing has expanded with evolution. To assess the …

Information is carried between brain regions through neurotransmitter release from axonal
presynaptic terminals. Understanding the functional roles of defined neuronal projection …

Extracellular purines (adenosine, ADP, and ATP) and pyrimidines (UDP and UTP) are
important signaling molecules that mediate diverse biological effects via cellsurface …

In addition to being essential supporters of neuronal function, astrocytes are now recognized
as active elements in the brain. Astrocytes sense and integrate synaptic activity and …

Adenosine acts in parallel as a neuromodulator and as a homeostatic modulator in the
central nervous system. Its neuromodulatory role relies on a balanced activation of inhibitory …

NITRIC oxide (NO) is important in many biological functions1–5. It is generated from L-
arginine by the enzyme NO synthase (NOS). The cytokine-inducible NOS (iNOS) is activated …

Despite continuous advances in understanding the underlying pathogenesis of
hyperexcitable networks and lowered seizure thresholds, the treatment of epilepsy remains …