The human body is full of an extensive number of commensal microbes, consisting of
bacteria, viruses, and fungi, collectively termed the human microbiome. The initial …

Gut dysbiosis, a primary factor behind various gastrointestinal disorders may also augment
lipopolysaccharides, pro-inflammatory cytokines, T helper cells and monocytes causing …

Background The intestine is one of the first affected organs in Parkinson's disease (PD). PD
subjects show abnormal staining for Escherichia coli and α-synuclein in the colon. Methods …

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a chronic and progressive disorder characterized
neuropathologically by loss of dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra, intracellular …

Background Interactions between neurons, astrocytes, and microglia critically influence
neuroinflammatory responses to insult in the central nervous system. In vitro astrocyte and …

Microglia—resident myeloid-lineage cells in the brain and the spinal cord parenchyma—
function in the maintenance of normal tissue homeostasis. Microglia also act as sentinels of …

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is a cell-wall immunostimulatory endotoxin component of Gram-
negative bacteria. A growing body of evidence reveals that alterations in the bacterial …

Parkinson's disease (PD) pathophysiology develops in part from the formation, transmission,
and aggregation of toxic species of the protein α-synuclein (α-syn). Recent evidence …

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disease, after
Alzheimer's disease. The potential causes of PD remain uncertain, but recent studies …

Over the last decade the important concept has emerged that microglia, similar to other
tissue macrophages, assume different phenotypes and serve several effector functions …