Rationale Caffeine is widely consumed in foods and beverages and is also used for a
variety of medical purposes. Despite its widespread use, relatively little is understood …

Microglia, the brain's resident macrophages, help to regulate brain function by removing
dying neurons, pruning non-functional synapses, and producing ligands that support …

In the striatum, dopamine D1 receptors are preferentially expressed in striatonigral neurons,
and increase the neuronal excitability, leading to the increase in GABAergic inhibitory output …

Phosphodiesterase (PDE) is a critical regulator of cAMP/protein kinase A (PKA) signaling in
cells. Multiple PDEs with different substrate specificities and subcellular localization are …

Disturbances of the basal ganglia processes is heavily involved in schizophrenia.
Phosphodiesterase 10A (PDE10A) is a basal ganglia specific hydrolase, which plays an …

Until now, more than 800 distinct G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) have been identified
in the human genome. The four subtypes of the adenosine receptor (A 1, A 2A, A 2B and A 3 …

Physical and emotional pain deteriorates the quality of well-being. Also, numerous non-
invasive and invasive treatments for diagnosed diseases such as cancer medications and …

Repetitive behaviors are diagnostic for autism and common in related neurodevelopmental
disorders. Despite their clinical importance, underlying mechanisms associated with the …

While the role of the ascending dopaminergic system in brain function and dysfunction has
been a subject of extensive research, the role of the descending dopaminergic system in …

Adenosine and glutamate have been implicated as mediators involved in the self-
administration of alcohol. In the present study we sought to determine whether adenosine …