The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is the largest single intracellular organelle, which is present
in all types of nerve cells. The ER is an interconnected, internally continuous system of …

Abstract Background and Rationale The dynorphin/kappa opioid receptor (KOR) system has
been implicated as a critical component of the stress response. Stress-induced activation of …

Opium, derived from the Greek word for “juice,” is extracted from the latex sap of the opium
poppy (Papaverum somniferum). The juice of the poppy is the source of some 20 different …

Key points The peripheral terminals of sensory neurons encode physical and chemical
signals into trains of action potentials (APs) and transmit these trains to the CNS. Although …

Stress and anxiety-related behaviors controlled by the basolateral amygdala (BLA) are
regulated in vivo by neuropeptide Y (NPY) and corticotrophin-releasing factor (CRF): NPY …

Chronic opioid-induced drug dependence and withdrawal syndrome after opioid cessation
remain a severe obstacle in clinical treatment of chronic pain and opioid drug addiction. One …

In various excitable tissues, the hyperpolarization-activated, cyclic nucleotide-gated current
(Ih) contributes to burst firing by depolarizing the membrane after a period of …

BACKGROUND: Chronic neuropathic pain resulting from neuronal damage remains difficult
to treat, in part, because of incomplete understanding of underlying cellular mechanisms …

The ventral tegmental area (VTA) is the source of dopaminergic projections innervating
cortical structures and ventral forebrain. Dysfunction of this mesocorticolimbic system is …

Kappa opioid receptor (KOR) agonists produce dysphoria and psychotomimesis. While KOR
agonists produce pro-depressant-like effects, KOR antagonists produce anti-depressant-like …