The adenosine modulation system mostly operates through inhibitory A1 (A1R) and
facilitatory A2A receptors (A2AR) in the brain. The activity‐dependent release of adenosine …

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disorder,
characterized by dopaminergic neurodegeneration, motor impairment and non-motor …

Pharmacological tool compounds are now available to define action at the adenosine (ARs),
P2Y and P2X receptors. We present a selection of the most commonly used agents to study …

As an endogenous neuroprotectant agent, adenosine is extensively distributed and is
particularly abundant in the central nervous system (CNS). Under physiological conditions …

Atypical antipsychotic drugs were introduced in the early 1990s. Unlike typical
antipsychotics, which are effective only against positive symptoms of schizophrenia, atypical …

Retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) play a crucial role in the visual pathway. As their axons form
the optic nerve, apoptosis of these cells causes neurodegenerative vision loss. RGC death …

New neurons are generated throughout adulthood in two regions of the brain, the olfactory
bulb and dentate gyrus of the hippocampus, and are incorporated into the hippocampal …

Increasing evidence suggests that regular consumption of coffee, tea and dark chocolate
(cacao) can promote brain health and may reduce the risk of age-related neurodegenerative …

Caffeine is the most consumed psychoactive drug worldwide and its intake in moderate
amounts prevents neurodegenerative disorders. However, the molecular targets of caffeine …

Methylxanthines (MTXs) are consumed by almost everybody in almost every area of the
world. Caffeine, theophylline and theobromine are the most well‐known members of this …