The decline in the floating sea ice cover in the Arctic is one of the most striking
manifestations of climate change. In this review, we examine this ongoing loss of Arctic sea …

Human-induced atmospheric composition changes cause a radiative imbalance at the top of
the atmosphere which is driving global warming. This Earth energy imbalance (EEI) is the …

2 Chapter 2 assesses observed large-scale changes in climate system drivers, key climate
indicators and 3 principal modes of variability. Chapter 3 considers model performance and …

Large-scale changes in Arctic sea ice thickness, volume and multiyear sea ice (MYI)
coverage with available measurements from submarine sonars, satellite altimeters (ICESat …

Abstract The Ice, Cloud, and land Elevation Satellite (ICESat) mission used laser altimetry
measurements to determine changes in elevations of glaciers and ice sheets, as well as sea …

Abstract The Global Coupled 3 (GC3) configuration of the Met Office Unified Model is
presented. Among other applications, GC3 is the basis of the United Kingdom's submission …

In 2018 we celebrated 25 years of development of radar altimetry, and the progress
achieved by this methodology in the fields of global and coastal oceanography, hydrology …

The Earth climate system is out of energy balance, and heat has accumulated continuously
over the past decades, warming the ocean, the land, the cryosphere, and the atmosphere …

When sea ice forms it scavenges and concentrates particulates from the water column,
which then become trapped until the ice melts. In recent years, melting has led to record …

This chapter assesses the causes of observed changes assessed in Chapters 2 to 5 and
uses understanding of physical processes, climate models and statistical approaches. The …