Deimatic behaviours, also referred to as startle behaviours, are used against predators and
rivals. Although many are spectacular, their proximate and ultimate causes remain unclear …

The theory of warning signals dates back to Wallace but is still confusing, controversial and
complex. Because predator avoidance of warningly coloured prey (aposematism) is based …

Avoiding Attack discusses the diversity of mechanisms by which prey avoid predator attacks
and explores how such defensive mechanisms have evolved through natural selection. It …

Antipredator defenses and warning signals typically evolve in concert. However, the
extensive variation across taxa in both these components of predator deterrence and the …

Aposematic theory has historically predicted that predators should select for warning signals
to converge on a single form, as a result of frequency‐dependent learning. However …

The tritrophic interactions between plants, herbivores and avian predators are complex and
prone to trophic cascades. We conducted a meta-analysis of original articles that have …

Insect communities consist of aposematic species with efficient warning colours against
predation, as well as abundant examples of crypsis. To understand such coexistence, we …

The evolution of defensive traits and strategies depends on the intensity of selection
imposed by natural enemies and on the fitness costs of defenses against these enemies. We …

Deimatic or 'startle'displays cause a receiver to recoil reflexively in response to a sudden
change in sensory input. Deimatism is sometimes implicitly treated as a form of …

Melanin production is often considered costly, yet beneficial for thermoregulation. Studies of
variation in melanization and the opposing selective forces that underlie its variability …