Interferon (IFN) responses, mediated by a myriad of IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs), are the
most profound innate immune responses against viruses. Cumulatively, these IFN effectors …

Tryptophan (TRP) is an essential dietary amino acid that, unless otherwise committed to
protein synthesis, undergoes metabolism via the Tryptophan-Kynurenine (TRP-KYN) …

The avian influenza A virus (AIV) is naturally prevalent in aquatic birds, infecting different
avian species and transmitting from birds to humans. Both AIVs, the H5N1 and H7N9 …

Mallard ducks are important natural hosts of low pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI) viruses
and many strains circulate in this reservoir and cause little harm. Some strains can be …

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are evolutionarily conserved pattern recognition receptors that
have been identified in mammals and avian species. Ligands for TLRs are typically …

The ongoing battle against current and rising viral infectious threats has prompted
increasing effort in the development of vaccine technology. A major thrust in vaccine …

Simple Summary In recent years, substitution or reduction of antibiotic application has
become a general aim in poultry industry, after concerns about multiresistant bacteria …

Avian has a unique immune system that evolved in response to environmental pressures in
all aspects of innate and adaptive immune responses, including localized and circulating …

Several microbes, including Staphylococcus epidermidis (S. epidermidis), a Gram-positive
bacterium, live inside the human nasal cavity as commensals. The role of these nasal …

Mallard ducks are a natural host and reservoir of avian Influenza A viruses. While most
influenza strains can replicate in mallards, the virus typically does not cause substantial …