We assess evidence relevant to Earth's equilibrium climate sensitivity per doubling of
atmospheric CO2, characterized by an effective sensitivity S. This evidence includes …

Throughout Earth's history, CO2 is thought to have exerted a fundamental control on
environmental change. Here we review and revise CO2 reconstructions from boron isotopes …

Chapter 2 assesses observed large-scale changes in climate system drivers, key climate
indicators and principal modes of variability. Chapter 3 considers model performance and …

Much of our understanding of Earth's past climate comes from the measurement of oxygen
and carbon isotope variations in deep-sea benthic foraminifera. Yet, long intervals in …

Origins of an alpine flora The evolution of high mountain floras is strongly influenced by
tectonic and climatic history. Ding et al. document the timing, tempo, and mode by which the …

Working Group I (WGI) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) assesses
the current evidence on the physical science of climate change, evaluating knowledge …

As the world warms due to rising greenhouse gas concentrations, the Earth system moves
toward climate states without societal precedent, challenging adaptation. Past Earth system …

Abstract Late Pliocene and Early Pleistocene epochs 3.6 to 0.8 million years ago had
climates resembling those forecasted under future warming. Palaeoclimatic records show …

Transitioning away from our current global energy system is of paramount importance. The
speed at which a transition can take place—its timing, or temporal dynamics—is a critical …

We use numerical climate simulations, paleoclimate data, and modern observations to study
the effect of growing ice melt from Antarctica and Greenland. Meltwater tends to stabilize the …