The principle of trained immunity represents innate immune memory due to sustained,
mainly epigenetic, changes triggered by endogenous or exogenous stimuli in bone marrow …

Most vaccines require multiple doses to induce long-lasting protective immunity in a high
frequency of vaccines, and to ensure strong both individual and herd immunity. Repetitive …

Trained immunity is a long-term increase in responsiveness of innate immune cells, induced
by certain infections and vaccines. During the last 3 years of the COVID-19 pandemic …

The innate immune system is able to build memory-like features in response to certain
infections or vaccines, resulting in enhanced responsiveness upon (re) challenge with the …

Clinical evidence strongly suggests that certain live vaccines, in particular bacille Calmette–
Guérin (BCG) and measles vaccines, can reduce all-cause mortality, most probably through …

The central paradigm of vaccination is to generate resistance to infection by a specific
pathogen when the vacinee is re-exposed to that pathogen. This paradigm is based on two …

Climate change harms health in all populations. 1 Heatrelated illness and deaths are
increasing worldwide, from heatstroke, adverse pregnancy outcomes, worsened kidney …

Background Epidemiological and immunological studies are increasingly reporting non-
specific effects (NSEs) of vaccines; ie vaccines may affect the risk and severity of non …

Immunological memory is classically attributed to adaptive immune responses, but recent
studies have shown that challenged innate immune cells can display long-term functional …

Non-specific effects (NSE) or heterologous effects of vaccines are proposed to explain
observations in some studies that certain vaccines have an impact beyond the direct …