Tumor necrosis factor–α (TNF-α) blockers are a popular therapeutic choice in a number of
inflammatory diseases. Thus far, five TNF-α blockers have been approved for clinical use …

Abstract Interleukin-6 (IL-6) is a pleiotropic cytokine with significant functions in the
regulation of the immune system. As a potent pro-inflammatory cytokine, IL-6 plays a pivotal …

Introduction: Schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and major depressive disorder (MDD) have all
been associated with immune system dysfunction, including aberrant cerebrospinal fluid …

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic disease that is characterized by demyelination and
axonal damage in the central nervous system. Cognitive deficits are recognized as one of …

Microglia are highly plastic immune cells which exist in a continuum of activation states. By
shaping the function of oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs), the brain cells which …

Publisher Summary This chapter focuses on structure and expression of interleukin-6 (IL-6),
which is a cytokine with pleiotropic activities that plays a central role in host defense. IL-6 …

The role of tumor necrosis factor (TNF) as an immune mediator has long been appreciated
but its function in the brain is still unclear. TNF receptor 1 (TNFR1) is expressed in most cell …

Immune cells mediate critical inflammatory and neurodegenerative processes in the CNS in
individuals with multiple sclerosis (MS). In MS, activated microglia, border-associated …

Despite improved understanding of the pathogenesis of neuroinflammatory disorders of the
brain and development of new diagnostic markers, our biomarker repertoire to demonstrate …

Background Mitochondrial dysfunction and defects in oxidative metabolism are a
characteristic feature of many chronic illnesses not currently classified as mitochondrial …