The adenosine modulation system mostly operates through inhibitory A1 (A1R) and
facilitatory A2A receptors (A2AR) in the brain. The activity‐dependent release of adenosine …

Microglial cells, the resident macrophages of the central nervous system (CNS), exist in a
process-bearing, ramified/surveying phenotype under resting conditions. Upon activation by …

Adenosine signalling has long been a target for drug development, with adenosine itself or
its derivatives being used clinically since the 1940s. In addition, methylxanthines such as …

In the 10 years since our previous International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology
report on the nomenclature and classification of adenosine receptors, no developments …

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease, characterized by the
loss of memory, multiple cognitive impairments and changes in the personality and …

Caffeine causes most of its biological effects via antagonizing all types of adenosine
receptors (ARs): A1, A2A, A3, and A2B and, as does adenosine, exerts effects on neurons …

Astrocytes express a variety of G protein–coupled receptors and might influence cognitive
functions, such as learning and memory. However, the roles of astrocytic Gs-coupled …

Purinergic neurotransmission, involving release of ATP as an efferent neurotransmitter was
first proposed in 1972. Later, ATP was recognised as a cotransmitter in peripheral nerves …

ATP is released in an activity-dependent manner from different cell types in the brain,
fulfilling different roles as a neurotransmitter, neuromodulator, in astrocyte-to-neuron …

Adenosine acts in parallel as a neuromodulator and as a homeostatic modulator in the
central nervous system. Its neuromodulatory role relies on a balanced activation of inhibitory …