Engineering the genetic code of an organism has been proposed to provide a firewall from
natural ecosystems by preventing viral infections and gene transfer,,,,–. However, numerous …

It is widely hypothesized that removing cellular transfer RNAs (tRNAs)—making their
cognate codons unreadable—might create a genetic firewall to viral infection and enable …

The near-universal genetic code defines the correspondence between codons in genes and
amino acids in proteins. We refactored the structure of the genetic code in Escherichia coli …

Withstanding 3.5 billion years of genetic drift, the canonical genetic code remains such a
fundamental foundation for the complexity of life that it is highly conserved across all three …

Rewriting a genome | Nature Skip to main content Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are
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Nature uses 64 codons to encode the synthesis of proteins from the genome, and chooses 1
sense codon—out of up to 6 synonyms—to encode each amino acid. Synonymous codon …

We describe the construction and characterization of a genomically recoded organism
(GRO). We replaced all known UAG stop codons in Escherichia coli MG1655 with …

INTRODUCTION The ability to engineer translation of noncanonical (unnatural) amino acids
(ncAAs) site-specifically into proteins in living cells greatly expands the chemical space that …

As Theodore Friedmann notes in “Overcoming the Obstacles to Gene Therapy” on page 96
of this issue, many efforts at developing gene therapy employ modified viruses to shuttle into …

Genetic recombination is a major force driving the evolution of many viruses. Recombination
between two copackaged retroviral genomes may occur at rates as high as 40% per …