Muscles spanning multiple joints play important functional roles in a wide range of systems
across tetrapods; however, their fundamental mechanics are poorly understood, particularly …

The geometry of the musculoskeletal system, such as moment arms and linkages,
determines the link between muscular functions and external mechanical results, but as the …

The axial muscles of snakes are notable for having long tendons within individual segments
that span several vertebrae. Consequently, muscles that extend anteriorly have a constraint …

Snake locomotor, constriction, and swallowing movements all involve axial bending and
twisting movements, but each differs in pattern of movement, speed, duration, and force …

A snake's body represents an extreme degree of elongation with immense muscle
complexity. Snakes have approximately 25 different muscles on each side of the body at …

The epaxial muscles in snakes are responsible for locomotion and as such can be expected
to show adaptations in species living in different environments. Here, we tested whether the …

The need for long-axis support is widespread among non-aquatic vertebrates and may be
particularly acute for arboreal snakes when many vertebrae span sizable gaps between …

Locomotion in most tetrapods involves coordinated efforts between appendicular and axial
musculoskeletal systems, where interactions between the limbs and the ground generate …

We quantified the abilities of snakes to extend the anterior body horizontally without support,
and we evaluated data for 31 species representing five families. Generally, terrestrial snakes …

Understanding the origin and maintenance of functionally important subordinate traits is a
major goal of evolutionary physiologists and ecomorphologists. Within the confines of a …