Protein folding is inherently a heterogeneous process because of the very large number of
microscopic pathways that connect the myriad unfolded conformations to the unique …

The transition path is the tiny fraction of an equilibrium molecular trajectory when a transition
occurs as the free-energy barrier between two states is crossed. It is a single-molecule …

A complete understanding of a protein-folding mechanism requires description of the
distribution of microscopic pathways that connect the folded and unfolded states. This …

In order to investigate the behavior of single molecules under conditions far from
equilibrium, we have coupled a microfabricated laminar-flow mixer to a confocal optical …

Recent theoretical work suggests that protein folding involves an ensemble of pathways on
a rugged energy landscape. We provide direct evidence for heterogeneous folding …

Single‐molecule spectroscopy is an important new approach for studying the intrinsically
heterogeneous process of protein folding. This Review illustrates how different single …

Protein folding is difficult to simulate with classical molecular dynamics. Secondary structure
motifs such as α-helices and β-hairpins can form in 0.1–10 µs (ref.), whereas small proteins …

Recent experimental work on fast protein folding brings about an intriguing paradox.
Microsecond-folding proteins are supposed to fold near or at the folding speed limit …

Although protein-folding studies began several decades ago, it is only recently that the tools
to analyze protein folding at the single-molecule level have been developed. Advances in …

For many decades, protein folding experimentalists have worked with no information about
the time scales of relevant protein folding motions and without methods for estimating the …