In animals, sex differences in immunity are proposed to shape variation in infection
prevalence and intensity among individuals in a population, with females typically expected …

Sexual dimorphism in immune function is a common pattern in vertebrates and also in a
number of invertebrates. Most often, females are more 'immunocompetent'than males. The …

Sex differences in immunity are found in many species. Known immune mechanisms in
birds and mammals suggest that pathogen detection may be amplified in females, whereas …

Males and females differ in both parasite load and the strength of immune responses and
these effects have been verified in humans and other vertebrates. Sex hormones act as …

Why do males and females often differ in their ability to cope with infection? Beyond
physiological mechanisms, it has recently been proposed that life-history theory could …

Background Life-history theory predicts a trade-off between investment into immune defence
and other fitness-related traits. Accordingly, individuals are expected to upregulate their …

Males generally exhibit reduced immune responses as well as increased intensity and
prevalence of infections compared to female conspecifics. Physiologically, these sex …

Parasites indirectly affect life-history evolution of most species. Combating parasites
requires costly immune defenses that are assumed to trade off with other life-history traits. In …

A central assumption in ecological immunology is that immune responses are costly, with
costs manifesting directly (eg, increases in metabolic rate and increased amino acid usage) …

Background Sexual dimorphism in immunity is believed to reflect sex differences in
reproductive strategies and trade-offs between competing life history demands. Sexual …