The recognition of invading pathogens and endogenous molecules from damaged tissues
by toll-like receptors (TLRs) triggers protective self-defense mechanisms. However …

Mammalian cells can release different types of extracellular vesicles (EVs), including
exosomes, microvesicles, and apoptotic bodies. Accumulating evidence suggests that EVs …

An autoimmune disease is defined as a clinical syndrome resulted from an instigation of
both T cell and B cell or individually, in the absence of any present infection or any sort of …

Humans evolved within a microbial ecosystem resulting in an interlinked physiology. The gut
microbiota can signal to the brain via the immune system, the vagus nerve or other host …

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) in milk harbor a variety of compounds, including lipids, proteins,
noncoding RNAs, and mRNAs. Among the various classes of EVs, exosomes are of …

Cachexia, characterized by muscle wasting, is a major contributor to cancer-related
mortality. However, the key cachexins that mediate cancer-induced muscle wasting remain …

The innate immune system deploys a variety of pattern-recognition receptors (PRRs) which
include Toll-like receptors (TLRs), RIG-I-like receptors, NOD-like receptors, and C-type lectin …

Pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) and endogenous “danger” signals,
known as danger-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), released from cells alert the …

Toll-like receptor (TLR)-7 is an endosomal innate immune sensor capable of detecting
single-stranded ribonucleic acid. TLR7-mediated induction of type I interferon and other …

The immune system was identified as a protective factor during infectious diseases over a
century ago. Current definitions and textbook information are still largely influenced by these …