Instrumental behavior is a very complex and multifaceted process. Behavioral output during
instrumental performance is influenced by a variety of factors, including associative …

In this chapter we provide an overview of the pharmacological and circuit mechanisms that
determine the willingness to expend effort in pursuit of rewards. A particular focus will be on …

How are actions linked with subsequent outcomes to guide choices? The nucleus
accumbens, which is implicated in this process, receives glutamatergic inputs from the …

Individuals frequently differ in their behavioral and cognitive responses to stress. However,
whether motivation is differently affected by acute stress in different individuals remains to be …

Acetylcholine is an important neuromodulator of the mesolimbic dopamine (DA) system,
which itself is a mediator of motivated behavior. Motivated behavior can be described by two …

The dopamine‐depleting agent tetrabenazine alters effort‐based choice, suppressing food‐
reinforced behaviors with high response requirements, while increasing selection of low …

The NIMH research domain criteria (RDoC) approach was instigated to refocus mental
health research on the neural circuits that mediate psychological functions, with the idea that …

Apathy, deficiency of motivation including willingness to exert effort for reward, is a common
symptom in many psychiatric and neurological disorders, including depression and …

Abstract N-methyl-D-aspartate-receptor (NMDAR) hypofunction contributes to cognitive
impairments in neuropsychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia. Reduced NMDAR …

Anhedonia is a prevalent symptom across many psychiatric disorders. The contemporary
scope of anhedonia across various models includes interest, reward anticipation, motivation …