Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) is the prototypic pro-inflammatory cytokine. It is central to host
defense and inflammatory responses but under certain circumstances also triggers cell …

Execution of fundamental cellular functions demands regulated protein folding homeostasis.
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is an active organelle existing to implement this function by …

In the mammalian central nervous system, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation is
counterbalanced by antioxidant defenses. When large amounts of ROS accumulate …

Despite the capacity of chaperones and other homeostatic components to restore folding
equilibrium, cells appear poorly adapted for chronic oxidative stress that increases in cancer …

Reactive oxygen species (ROS), whether produced endogenously as a consequence of
normal cell functions or derived from external sources, pose a constant threat to cells living …

Over the last decade the important concept has emerged that microglia, similar to other
tissue macrophages, assume different phenotypes and serve several effector functions …

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are a family of innate immune system receptors that respond to
pathogen-derived and tissue damage-related ligands. TLR signaling in immune cells, glia …

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by a preferential
loss of the dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigrapars compacta. Although the …

▪ Abstract Nerve growth factor (NGF) was discovered 50 years ago as a molecule that
promoted the survival and differentiation of sensory and sympathetic neurons. Its roles in …

Inflammation is a hallmark of stroke pathology. The cytokines, tumor necrosis factor (TNF),
interleukin (IL)-1, and IL-6, modulate tissue injury in experimental stroke and are therefore …