The evolutionary origins of sleep and its sub-states, rapid eye movement (REM) and non-
REM (NREM) sleep, found in mammals and birds, remain a mystery. Although the discovery …

All animals carefully studied sleep, suggesting that sleep as a behavioral state exists in all
animal life. Such evolutionary maintenance of an otherwise vulnerable period of …

The characteristics of the sleep drivers and the mechanisms through which sleep relieves
the cellular homeostatic pressure are unclear. In flies, zebrafish, mice, and humans, DNA …

Monoamines like serotonin, dopamine, and adrenaline/noradrenaline (epinephrine/
norepinephrine) act as neuromodulators in the nervous system. They play a role in complex …

Chronic sleep loss profoundly impacts metabolic health and shortens lifespan, but studies of
the mechanisms involved have focused largely on acute sleep deprivation. 1, 2 To identify …

Sleep is vital for most animals, yet its mechanism and function remain unclear. We found that
permeability of the BBB (blood–brain barrier)—the organ required for the maintenance of …

The marker approach is taken as best practice for answering the distribution question: Which
animals are conscious? However, the methodology can be used to increase confidence in …

Hunger and satiety can have an influence on decision-making, sensory processing, and
motor behavior by altering the internal state of the brain. This process necessitates the …

Sleep is a familiar, periodic occurrence in our lives. Despite its place in everyday
experience, the existence of this suspended state of consciousness has intrigued and …

The brain is a prediction machine. Yet the world is never entirely predictable, for any animal.
Unexpected events are surprising, and this typically evokes prediction error signatures in …