PD-1 as an immune checkpoint molecule down-regulates T cell activity during immune
responses in order to prevent autoimmune tissue damage. In chronic infections or tumors …

Exhausted CD8 T (Tex) cells are a distinct cell lineage that arise during chronic infections
and cancers in animal models and humans. Tex cells are characterized by progressive loss …

Following immune attack, solid tumors upregulate coinhibitory ligands that bind to inhibitory
receptors on T cells. This adaptive resistance compromises the efficacy of chimeric antigen …

Immunodeficient mice engrafted with functional human cells and tissues, that is, humanized
mice, have become increasingly important as small, preclinical animal models for the study …

Costimulatory and inhibitory receptors play a key role in regulating immune responses to
infections. Recent translation of knowledge about inhibitory receptors such as CTLA-4 and …

Chronic immune activation, immunosuppression, and T cell exhaustion are hallmarks of HIV
infection, yet the mechanisms driving these processes are unclear. Chronic activation can …

Targeting PD-L1 and PD-1 interactions is a relatively new therapeutic strategy used to treat
cancer. Inhibitors of PD-1/PD-L1 include peptides, small molecule chemical compounds …

Background Anti-programmed cell death protein 1/programmed death ligand 1 (PD-1/PD-
L1) immunotherapy is now routinely used to treat several cancers. Clinical trials have …

Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) are increasingly being considered as agents to fight severe
viral diseases. So far, they have essentially been selected and used on the basis of their …

Virus-specific CD8+ T cells play an important role in controlling viral infections including
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. However, during chronic HIV infection, virus …