The hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA axis) is required for stress adaptation.
Activation of the HPA axis causes secretion of glucocorticoids, which act on multiple organ …

Allostasis, or stability through change, has most often been linked with challenges to
homeostasis, in which repeated challenges or stressors produce sufficient allostatic load to …

Stress affects a constellation of physiological systems in the body and evokes a rapid shift in
many neurobehavioral processes. A growing body of work indicates that the …

Stressors are imminent or perceived challenges to homeostasis. The stress response is an
innate, stereotypic, adaptive response to stressors that has evolved in the service of …

The ventral tegmental area dopamine (VTA-DA) mesolimbic circuit processes emotional,
motivational, and social reward associations together with their more demanding cognitive …

Compulsive drug seeking that is associated with addiction is hypothesized to follow a
heuristic framework that involves three stages (binge/intoxication, withdrawal/negative affect …

Fear extinction is a phenomenon that involves a gradual reduction in conditioned fear
responses through repeated exposure to fear-inducing cues. Functional brain connectivity …

Data will be reviewed using the acoustic startle reflex in rats and humans based on our
attempts to operationally define fear vs anxiety. Although the symptoms of fear and anxiety …

Bruce McEwen's discovery of receptors for corticosterone in the rat hippocampus introduced
higher brain circuits in the neuroendocrinology of stress. Subsequently, these receptors …

Research has elucidated causal links between stress exposure and the development of
anxiety disorders, but due to the limited use of female or sex-comparative animal models …