Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are pattern recognition receptors that play a central role in the
development and function of the immune system. TLR signaling promotes the earliest …

The endosomal Toll-like receptors (TLRs) TLR3, TLR7, TLR8 and TLR9 are important in
sensing foreign nucleic acids encountered by phagocytes. Because TLR8 was initially …

Abstract Toll-like receptor 8 (TLR8) recognizes viral or bacterial single-stranded RNA
(ssRNA) and activates innate immune systems. TLR8 is activated by uridine-and guanosine …

The ability of innate immune cells to sense and respond to impending danger varies by
anatomical location. The liver is considered tolerogenic but is still capable of mounting a …

In the COVID-19 pandemic, a male bias in hospitalization and mortality has become
apparent. Males are 2.84 times more often admitted to the ICU and mortality is 1.39 times …

Early clearance (EC) is the successful eradication of inhaled M ycobacterium tuberculosis
before an adaptive immune response develops. Evidence for EC comes from case contact …

Campylobacter jejuni is the most prevalent cause of food-borne gastroenteritis in the
developed world; however, the molecular basis of pathogenesis is unclear. Secretion of …

Phagocytosed Borrelia burgdorferi (Bb) induces inflammatory signals that differ both
quantitatively and qualitatively from those generated by spirochetal lipoproteins interacting …

Airway epithelial cells (AECs) are part of the frontline defense against infection of pathogens
by providing both a physical barrier and immunological function. The role of AECs in the …

When microorganisms invade a host, the innate immune system first recognizes the
pathogen-associated molecular patterns of these microorganisms through pattern …