There is increasing evidence in humans and laboratory animals for biologically based sex
differences in every phase of drug addiction: acute reinforcing effects, transition from …

Opioids mediate their effects via opioid receptors: mu, delta, and kappa. At the neuronal
level, opioid receptors are generally inhibitory, presynaptically reducing neurotransmitter …

The ventral tegmental area (VTA) is well known for regulating reward consumption, learning,
memory, and addiction behaviors through mediating dopamine (DA) release in downstream …

Opioids are the most potent analgesics in clinical use; however, their powerful rewarding
properties can lead to addiction. The scientific challenge is to retain analgesic potency while …

It is estimated that nearly a third of people who abuse drugs started with prescription opioid
medicines. Approximately, 11.5 million Americans used prescription drugs recreationally in …

The dopamine (DA) hypothesis posits the increase of mesolimbic dopamine levels as a
defining commonality of addictive drugs, initially causing reinforcement, eventually leading …

Opioid reward has traditionally been thought to be mediated by GABA-induced disinhibition
of dopamine (DA) neurons in the VTA. However, direct behavioral evidence supporting this …

Among the neurotransmitters involved in addiction, dopamine (DA) is clearly the best known.
The critical role of DA in addiction is supported by converging evidence that has been …

Comorbidity is a major issue in psychiatry that notably associates with more severe
symptoms, longer illness duration, and higher service utilization. Therefore, identifying key …

Multiple theories identify neural vulnerability factors that may increase risk for overeating
and weight gain. Early cross-sectional neuroimaging studies were unable to determine …