Immune responses to antigens, including innocuous, self, tumor, microbial, and vaccine
antigens, differ between males and females. The quest to uncover the mechanisms for …

Women have stronger immune responses to infections and vaccination than men.
Paradoxically, the stronger immune response comes at a steep price, which is the high …

Obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) are increasing in prevalence owing to
decreases in physical activity levels and a shift to diets that include addictive and/or high …

One of the most compelling features of dry eye disease (DED) is that it occurs more
frequently in women than men. In fact, the female sex is a significant risk factor for the …

Males and females differ in both parasite load and the strength of immune responses and
these effects have been verified in humans and other vertebrates. Sex hormones act as …

In autoimmune rheumatic diseases, oestrogens can stimulate certain immune responses
(including effects on B cells and innate immunity), but can also have dose-related anti …

The developing human fetus generates both tolerogenic and protective immune responses
in response to the unique requirements of gestation. Thus, a successful human pregnancy …

Most of what is known about fungi in the human vagina has come from culture-based studies
and phenotypic characterization of single organisms. Though valuable, these approaches …

Historically tools and technologies facilitated scientific discoveries. Steroid hormone
research is not an exception. Unfortunately, the dramatic advancement of the field faded this …

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic inflammatory intestinal disorder that is difficult
to cure and characterized by periods of relapse. To face the challenges of limited treatment …