Evolution has endowed all humans with a continuum of innate, hard-wired, automatically
activated defense behaviors, termed the defense cascade. Arousal is the first step in …

The polyvagal theory introduced a new perspective relating autonomic function to behavior,
that included an appreciation of the autonomic nervous system as a “system,” the …

This article focuses on the importance of social engagement and the behavioral and
neurophysiological mechanisms that allow individuals to reduce psychological and physical …

Drawing on cutting-edge neuroscience to better understand emotion. We are hardwired to
connect with one another, and we connect through our emotions. Our brains, bodies, and …

This paper reviews the Window of Tolerance model of the long-term effects of the severe
emotional trauma associated with childhood abuse, a model which can also be applied to …

In addition to being a key component of the autonomic nervous system, acetylcholine acts as
a prominent neurotransmitter and neuromodulator upon release from key groups of …

Catatonia, long viewed as a motor disorder, may be better understood as a fear response,
akin to the animal defense strategy tonic immobility (after GG Gallup & JD Maser, 1977). This …

Tonic immobility, characterized by profound motor inhibition, is elicited under inescapable
threat in many species. To fully support the existence of tonic immobility in humans, our aim …

This study investigated sex similarities and differences in pain-related functional connectivity
in 60 healthy subjects. We used functional magnetic resonance imaging and …

The ability to modulate pain perception is as critical to survival as pain itself. The most
known pain modulation pathway is the PAG–RVM (periaqueductal gray–rostral …