The T‐cell response is central in the adaptive immune‐mediated elimination of pathogen‐
infected and/or cancer cells. This activated T‐cell response can inflict an overwhelming …

The upregulation of immune checkpoint molecules, such as programmed cell death protein
1 (PD1) and cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen 4 (CTLA4), on immune cells occurs during acute …

T cell responses must be balanced to ensure adequate protection against malignant
transformation and an array of pathogens while also limiting damage to healthy cells and …

The development of chronic infections and cancer is facilitated by a variety of immune
subversion mechanisms, such as the production of anti‐inflammatory cytokines, induction of …

Exhausted CD8 T (Tex) cells are a distinct cell lineage that arise during chronic infections
and cancers in animal models and humans. Tex cells are characterized by progressive loss …

T-cell exhaustion is a phenomenon of dysfunction or physical elimination of antigen-specific
T cells reported in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), hepatitis B virus (HBV), and …

HIV infection can be effectively treated by lifelong administration of combination antiretroviral
therapy, but an effective vaccine will likely be required to end the HIV epidemic. Although the …

The immune system maintains a critically organized network to defend against foreign
particles, while evading self-reactivity simultaneously. T lymphocytes function as effectors …

Antiretroviral therapy can effectively block HIV-1 replication and prevent or reverse
immunodeficiency in HIV-1-infected individuals. However, viral replication resumes within …

Immune responses need to be controlled for optimal protective immunity and tolerance.
Coinhibitory pathways in the B7-CD28 family provide critical inhibitory signals that regulate …