A group of European experts was commissioned by the European Chapter of the
International Federation of Clinical Neurophysiology to gather knowledge about the state of …

Direct current stimulation is a neuromodulatory noninvasive brain stimulation tool, which
was first introduced in animal and human experiments in the 1950s, and added to the …

Transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) is a unique form of non-invasive brain
stimulation. Sinusoidal alternating electric currents are delivered to the scalp to affect mostly …

Transcranial electrical stimulation (tES), including transcranial direct and alternating current
stimulation (tDCS, tACS) are non-invasive brain stimulation techniques increasingly used for …

Key points• Application of 2 mA cathodal transcranial direct current stimulation for 20 min
results in cortical excitability enhancement instead of inhibition.• Longer or more intensive …

There is growing interest in non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) as a novel treatment
option for substance-use disorders (SUDs). Recent momentum stems from a foundation of …

Background Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) has been reported to improve
various forms of learning in humans. Stimulation is often applied during training, producing …

Key points• The diversity of cellular targets of direct current stimulation (DCS), including
somas, dendrites and axon terminals, determine the modulation of synaptic efficacy.• Axon …

The objective of this review is to summarize the contribution of animal research using direct
current stimulation (DCS) to our understanding of the physiological effects of transcranial …

This review updates and consolidates evidence on the safety of transcranial Direct Current
Stimulation (tDCS). Safety is here operationally defined by, and limited to, the absence of …