The incidence of autoimmune diseases has been steadily rising. Concomitantly, the
incidence of most infectious diseases has declined. This observation gave rise to the …

The role traditionally assigned to astrocytes in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis (MS)
lesions has been the formation of the glial scar once inflammation has subsided. Astrocytes …

Introduction: Adverse immune activation contributes to many central nervous system (CNS)
disorders. All main CNS cell types express toll-like receptor 4 (TLR 4). This receptor is …

Neuronal dysfunction initiates several intracellular signaling cascades to release different
proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines, as well as various reactive oxygen species. In …

Toll-like receptor (TLR) signalling must be tightly regulated to avoid excessive inflammation
and to allow for tissue repair and the return to homeostasis after infection and tissue injury …

Introduction• TLR signalling• Endogenous TLR ligands• Biological significance of signalling
triggered by endogenous TLR ligands‐Ischemia and reperfusion injury‐Tissue repair and …

The discovery of mammalian TLRs (Toll-like receptors), first identified in 1997 based on their
homology with Drosophila Toll, greatly altered our understanding of how the innate immune …

Microglia are key players of the immune response in the central nervous system (CNS) and,
being the resident innate immune cells, they are responsible for the early control of …

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are a family of innate immune system receptors that respond to
pathogen-derived and tissue damage-related ligands. TLR signaling in immune cells, glia …

Autoimmune disease can develop as a result of a breakdown in immunological tolerance,
leading to the activation of self-reactive T cells. There is an established link between …