Motivational processes are complex and multifaceted, with both directional and activational
aspects. Behavioral activation and exertion of effort are functions that enable organisms to …

Motivation has been defined as the process that allows organisms to regulate their internal
and external environment, and control the probability, proximity and availability of stimuli. As …

Operant behavior is not only regulated by factors related to the quality or quantity of
reinforcement, but also by the work requirements inherent in performing instrumental …

Motivation can be characterized as a series of cost–benefit valuations, in which we weigh
the amount of effort we are willing to expend (the cost of an action) in return for particular …

All mobile organisms rely on adaptive motivated behavior to overcome the challenges of
living in an environment in which essential resources may be limited. A variety of influences …

Effort-based decision making is studied using tasks that offer choices between high-effort
options leading to more highly valued reinforcers versus low-effort/low-reward options …

This review paper is focused upon the involvement of mesolimbic dopamine (DA) and
related brain systems in effort-based processes. Interference with DA transmission affects …

Work in animal and human neuroscience has identified neural regions forming a network
involved in the production of motivated, goal-directed behaviour. In particular, the nucleus …

Background Depression is a disorder twice as common in women than in men. There are
sex differences in the symptomatology and treatment response to this disorder. Impairments …

Instrumental behavior is a very complex and multifaceted process. Behavioral output during
instrumental performance is influenced by a variety of factors, including associative …