Abstract Earth System Science (ESS) is a rapidly emerging transdisciplinary endeavour
aimed at understanding the structure and functioning of the Earth as a complex, adaptive …

Land surface models (LSMs) are a vital tool for understanding, projecting, and predicting the
dynamics of the land surface and its role within the Earth system, under global change …

This chapter assesses simulations of future global climate change, spanning time horizons
from the near term (2021–2040), mid-term (2041–2060), and long term (2081–2100) out to …

Working Group I (WGI) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) assesses
the current evidence on the physical science of climate change, evaluating knowledge …

Climate models have continued to be developed and improved since the AR4, and many
models have been extended into Earth System models by including the representation of …

This chapter addresses the biogeochemical cycles of carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4),
and nitrous oxide (N2O). The three greenhouse gases have increased in the atmosphere …

Stratigraphy provides insights into the evolution and dynamics of the Earth System over its
long history. With recent developments in Earth System science, changes in Earth System …

The last 6000years are of particular interest to the understanding of the Earth System
because the boundary conditions of the climate system did not change dramatically (in …

The interactions between environmental change and human societies have a long, complex
history spanning many millennia, but these have changed fundamentally in the last century …

This chapter assesses the capacity of the global climate models used elsewhere in this
report for projecting future climate change. Confidence in model estimates of future climate …