Gene transcription is the process by which the genetic codes of organisms are read and
interpreted as a set of instructions for cells to divide, differentiate, migrate, and mature. As …

In the brain, most synapses are formed on minute protrusions known as dendritic spines.
Unlike their artificial intelligence counterparts, spines are not merely tuneable memory …

In the hippocampus GABAergic local circuit inhibitory interneurons represent only~ 10–15%
of the total neuronal population; however, their remarkable anatomical and physiological …

The proper construction of neural circuits requires the generation of diverse cell types, their
distribution to defined regions, and their specific and appropriate wiring. A major objective in …

Understanding any brain circuit will require a categorization of its constituent neurons. In
hippocampal area CA1, at least 23 classes of GABAergic neuron have been proposed to …

Sleep exerts many effects on mammalian forebrain networks, including homeostatic effects
on both synaptic strengths and firing rates. We used large-scale recordings to examine the …

Calcium (Ca 2+) is considered one of the most-important biological cations, because it is
implicated in cell physiopathology and cell fate through a finely tuned signaling system. In …

Excitation–transcription coupling (E–TC) links synaptic and cellular activity to nuclear gene
transcription. It is generally accepted that E–TC makes a crucial contribution to learning and …

N-Methyl-d-Aspartate Receptors (NMDARs) are ionotropic glutamate-gated receptors.
NMDARs are tetramers composed by several homologous subunits of GluN1-, GluN2-, or …

The prevalence of autism spectrum disorder (ASD)—a type of neurodevelopmental disorder—
is increasing and is around 2% in North America, Asia, and Europe. Besides the known …