Opioids are mainly used to treat both acute and chronic pain. Several opioids are
metabolized to some extent by CYP2D6 (codeine, tramadol, hydrocodone, oxycodone, and …

Tramadol is a unique analgesic medication, available in variety of formulations, with both
monoaminergic reuptake inhibitory and opioid receptor agonist activity increasingly …

Genetic polymorphisms in cytochrome P450 (CYP) genes can result in altered metabolic
activity toward a plethora of clinically important medications. Thus, single nucleotide variants …

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Codeine is bioactivated to morphine, a strong opioid agonist, by the hepatic cytochrome
P450 2D6 (CYP2D6); hence, the efficacy and safety of codeine as an analgesic are …

Purpose CYP2D6 bioactivates codeine and tramadol, with intermediate and poor
metabolizers (IMs and PMs) expected to have impaired analgesia. This pragmatic proof-of …

Opioid analgesics are the standards of care for the treatment of moderate to severe
nociceptive pain, particularly in the setting of cancer and surgery. Their analgesic properties …

Opioids induce respiratory depression via activation of μ-opioid receptors at specific sites in
the central nervous system including the pre-Bötzinger complex, a respiratory rhythm …

Aims As an analgesic that acts upon the central nervous system (CNS), tramadol has gained
popularity in treating moderate to severe pain. Recently, it has been increasingly reported as …

Individual susceptibility to environmental, chemical, and drug toxicity is to some extent
determined by polymorphism in drug-metabolizing enzymes, in particular the cytochromes …