Seasonal influenza viruses cause recurring global epidemics by continually evolving to
escape host immunity. The viral constraints and host immune responses that limit and drive …

Control interventions steer the evolution of molecules, viruses, microorganisms or other cells
towards a desired outcome. Applications range from engineering biomolecules and …

Neuraminidase of influenza A and B viruses plays a critical role in the virus life cycle and is
an important target of the host immune system. Here, we highlight the current understanding …

Increasing the expression level of the SARS-CoV-2 spike (S) protein has been critical for
COVID-19 vaccine development. While previous efforts largely focused on engineering the …

Antigenic evolution of the influenza A virus (IAV) hemagglutinin (HA) gene limits efforts to
effectively control the spread of the virus in the population. Efforts to understand the …

Genetic diversity is a hallmark of RNA viruses and the basis for their evolutionary success.
Taking advantage of the uniquely large genomic database of SARS-CoV-2, we examine the …

Influenza neuraminidase (NA) has received increasing attention as an effective vaccine
target. However, its mutational tolerance is not well characterized. Here, the fitness effects …

Influenza A viruses cause severe respiratory illnesses in humans and animals. Overreaction
of the innate immune response to influenza virus infection results in hypercytokinemia …

Proteins play a central role in biology from immune recognition to brain activity. While major
advances in machine learning have improved our ability to predict protein structure from …

Immune imprinting is a driver known to shape the anti-hemagglutinin (HA) antibody
landscape of individuals born within the same birth cohort. With the HA and neuraminidase …