State-of-the-art tissue-clearing methods provide subcellular-level optical access to intact
tissues from individual organs and even to some entire mammals. When combined with light …

Tissue clearing of gross anatomical samples was first described more than a century ago
and has only recently found widespread use in the field of microscopy. This renaissance has …

Mapping behavioural actions to neural activity is a fundamental goal of neuroscience. As our
ability to record large neural and behavioural data increases, there is growing interest in …

Learning to predict rewards based on environmental cues is essential for survival. It is
believed that animals learn to predict rewards by updating predictions whenever the …

The striatum is essential for learning which actions lead to reward and for implementing
those actions. Decades of experimental and theoretical work have led to several influential …

INTRODUCTION Although the cerebellum has long been considered to be a purely motor
structure, recent studies have revealed that it also has critical nonmotor functions. Cerebellar …

The meta-reinforcement learning (meta-RL) framework, which involves RL over multiple
timescales, has been successful in training deep RL models that generalize to new …

Dopamine-releasing neurons of the ventral tegmental area (VTA) have central roles in
reward-related and goal-directed behaviours. VTA dopamine-releasing neurons are …

Midbrain dopamine (DA) neurons have diverse functions that can in part be explained by
their heterogeneity. Although molecularly distinct subtypes of DA neurons have been …

A large body of evidence has indicated that the phasic responses of midbrain dopamine
neurons show a remarkable similarity to a type of teaching signal (temporal difference (TD) …