Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) was traditionally thought to be caused by
tobacco smoking. However, recognition of the importance of non-smoking-related risk …

The natural history of COPD is complex, and the disease is best understood as a syndrome
resulting from numerous interacting factors throughout the life cycle with smoking being the …

The global burden of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) continues to grow in
part due to better outcomes in other major diseases and in part because a substantial …

Background COPD has increased in prevalence worldwide over several decades until the
first decade after the millennium shift. Evidence from a few recent population studies indicate …

The respiratory system is continuously exposed to endogenous and exogenous oxidants.
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is characterized by chronic inflammation of …

Chronic exposure to household indoor smoke and outdoor air pollution is a major
contributor to global morbidity and mortality. The majority of these deaths occur in low and …

Noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) are a major and increasing global health issue. The
World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that NCDs represent 63% of all global deaths of …

Introduction Relatively little is known about the risk factors for chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease (COPD) in never‐smokers, and these factors have not yet been fully characterised …

Introduction The prevalence of COPD tends to level off in populations with decreasing
prevalence of smoking but the extent of underdiagnosis in such populations needs further …

Background: Indonesia ranks 7th highest in the world for the number of deaths caused by
tobacco use including those caused by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) …