The extracellular forms of the IL‐1 cytokines are active through binding to specific receptors
on the surface of target cells. IL‐1 ligands bind to the extracellular portion of their ligand …

Signal transduction by the Toll-like receptors (TLRs) is central to host defence against many
pathogenic microorganisms and also underlies a large burden of human disease. Thus, the …

Pathological degeneration of axons disrupts neural circuits and represents one of the
hallmarks of neurodegeneration,,–. Sterile alpha and Toll/interleukin-1 receptor motif …

NF-κB (nuclear factor kappa B) family transcription factors are master regulators of immune
and inflammatory processes in response to both injury and infection. In the latent state, NF …

The membrane-bound Toll-like receptors (TLRs) trigger innate immune responses after
recognition of a wide variety of pathogen-derived compounds. Despite the wide range of …

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is a major component of the outer membrane of Gram-negative
bacteria. Minute amounts of LPS released from infecting pathogens can initiate potent innate …

Abstract Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9) is a pattern recognition receptor that is predominantly
located intracellularly in immune cells, including dendritic cells, macrophages, natural killer …

Sensing of pathogens by Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) induces an inflammatory response;
controlled responses confer immunity but uncontrolled responses cause harm. Here we …

TLRs are expressed on the plasma and endosomal membranes of innate immune cells
acting as sensors of foreign and inherent danger signals that threaten the host. Upon …

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS), also known as endotoxin, activates the innate immune response
through toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and its coreceptor, MD-2. MD-2 has a unique hydrophobic …