Since the advent of distributed ledger technologies, they have provided diverse
opportunities in a wide range of application domains. This article brings a comprehensive …

Highlights•We estimate the total energy consumption of the bitcoin network to be in the order
of 100 MW (which has been subject of debate).•We describe factors and developments that …

摘要共识算法是区块链技术的核心要素, 也是近年来分布式系统研究的热点.
本文系统性地梳理和讨论了区块链发展过程中的32 种重要共识算法, 介绍了传统分布式一致性 …

Blockchains have seen growing traction with cryptocurrencies reaching a market cap of over
1 trillion dollars, major institution investors taking interests, and global impacts on …

We present “Ouroboros”, the first blockchain protocol based on proof of stake with rigorous
security guarantees. We establish security properties for the protocol comparable to those …

Cryptocurrencies, such as Bitcoin and 250 similar alt-coins, embody at their core a
blockchain protocol---a mechanism for a distributed network of computational nodes to …

While showing great promise, Bitcoin requires users to wait tens of minutes for transactions
to commit, and even then, offering only probabilistic guarantees. This paper introduces …

In recent years, blockchain technology has received unparalleled attention from academia,
industry, and governments all around the world. It is considered a technological …

Proof of work (PoW), as the representative consensus protocol for blockchain, consumes
enormous amounts of computation and energy to determine bookkeeping rights among …

We study decentralized cryptocurrency protocols in which the participants do not deplete
physical scarce resources. Such protocols commonly rely on Proof of Stake, ie, on …